Gender inequality from a socological point of view

Gender inequality from a socological point of view In this essay I will discuss how gender inequality has been explained. In doing so I will explore three board approaches on gender differences and inequality. Which I will compare and contract with functionalist approach; who believe that gender roles fit the needs of the social system, and Feminist explanation; who argue women are unequal to men. First I will introduce the biological basis on behavioural difference between men and woman, supported by theorist Tiger and Fox (1972), Functionalist John Bowlby (1953), Jean Elshtain (1987). Next I will draw attention to theories placing central importance on socialisation and the learning of gender roles by looking at the works of Liberal Feminist Sue Sharp (1994) and Ann Oakley (1972). However while these theoretical approaches seek to explain the persistence of gender inequalities this essay will then go on to compare two opposing views, that of Functionalist and Marxist Feminist, in order to allow for greater depth in the analysis of these positions. I will do this by considering arguments made by functionalist theorist Talcott Parsons; forms of complementary roles (1942) and Murdock (1949) and furthermore Marxist theorist Friedrich Engels; ideas on capitalism (1902). Finally taking everything into account I will go on to critically assess the attempt of Radical Feminist to overcome gender inequality, where I will argue that radical feminist efforts to defeat gender inequalities has been less victorious then Liberal feminist, however there extreme views hold strong arguments on issues such as domestic violence. Sex can be seen as ambiguous term, which refers to the biological distinction between females and males (Macionis, Plummer, 2008:367). Many sociologists, who adopt the biological approach, propose that the functions of the brain and hormones to chromosomes are responsible for natural differences in behaviour between men and woman. They argue that men demonstrate biological based tendencies towards aggression that woman lack. This approach has been supported by theorist Tiger and Fox (1972), who agree that the natural selection has encouraged hormonal differences, which can explain gender differences such as senses, behaviour and emotions; they further claim that nature intended mothers and children to stay together. In contrast, this argument supports functionalist views on maternal deprivation as suggested by John Bowlby (1953) who wrote a psychological account of the ill effects of maternal deprivation on children. However feminist have argued that this has been misrepresented as a n ideological argument to keep women at home. In addition many researchers remain unconvinced by the biological approach, such as theorist Elshtain (1987) who suggested that the level of aggression varies for woman in different cultures, therefore the biological approach fails to take cultural factors to account. Furthermore critics point out that this theory is grounded upon data, animal behaviour rather than anthropological and historical data (Giddens, 2009:613). Gender refers to the social aspects of differences and hierarchies between male and females (Macionis, Plummer, 2008:367). Unlike the biological approach, many sociologists argue that there is nothing natural about gender inequality; rather it is socially constructed through socialisation of learning of gender roles. Liberal Feminist Anne Oakley (1972) claimed that gender roles are learnt through social agencies such as family; where manipulation and canalisation takes place, school; where boys are encouraged to take on sports, and the media; where women are portrayed as housewives in adverts for cleaning products. Ultimately children gradually internalize social norms and values that are expected from them which correspond with their sex. Consequently norms and values are culturally produced along with ideals of masculinity, femininity, which ultimately has led to the sexual division of labour. Oakley has disputed that the process of socialisation of gender roles is guided by manipu lation, for example in the home, boys and girls are encouraged to play with gender specific toys. The patriarchal ideology that is through claims that women are more suited to caring roles because of their maternal instinct supports functionalist views. Functionalists have used this ideology to argue that social agencies contribute to maintain social order by overseeing the smooth gender socialisation of new generations. However this has been sharply criticised by feminist who argue that this theory ignores the ability if individuals to reject certain norms and values projected by society. Theorist Connell (1987) stressed that empirical evidence on gender inequality is not simply a shapeless heap of data, but reveals the basis of an organised field of human practice and social relations through which woman are kept in subordinate positions to men (Connell, 1987). On a more optimistic note Connell suggested how females are seeking for change, for example school girls are taking interest in competitive sports, calling their own shots, which suggest gender inequality exploited within the family and state is being challenged, the means that have traditionally supported mens power is being weakened. However Despite the changes in society and the economy, such as the Thatcher era, which represented new female role models in power, did not seem to have had much impact on the girls attitudes as the study Just Like A Girl by Sue Sharp (1994) concluded, that girls still expected to undertake womens work, such as health work, teaching. Nevertheless the study did present some chan ge, such as greater stress on equality with men, which came with a sense of assertiveness and confidence. There was a greater importance of having a job, being able to support themselves, especially in the event of a divorce. Nonetheless the girls in Sharps findings indicated that the girls look forward to a future in which they are likely to end up juggling work and domestic life like their mothers before them. (Sharp, 1994). Functionalist see each aspect of society as interdependent and contributes to societys functioning as a whole, held together by social consensus, which produces order, stability, and productivity. Their sociological interest in gender is relatively recent, there theory proposes that gender differences contribute to social stability and integration and assume they fit the needs of individuals, the family and the social system. In contrast with the roles influenced by biology and learning of gender roles, through socialisation emphasise that the womans primary responsibility is the home. Anthropologist Murdock cross culture study (1949) emphasised the significance of motherhood and concluded that the mothers role and the family are universal, where womans main concern should be at the home, whereas mens main work should be outside the home. Furthermore a leading functionalist Parsons (1956) emphasised the important functions of the family, mainly as regards the stabilisation socialisat ion of children. The female taking on the expressive role providing care and security to children and offering them emotional support compared with the instrumental male role, where man take on the role of the bread winner in the family, these roles are seen as complementary which Parson believed helped integrate society. However the functionalist perspective neglects the inequalities in the distribution of labour and power, with the consequential exploitation of women in work and at home. Therefore theorist Oakley argued against Murdocks secondary data, by refuting his claim, that gender roles were universal, though she accepted that sexuality, reproduction and maternal care are influenced by biology. It can be heavily argued that the functionalist approach on gender neglect the negative functions of an event such as divorce. The fact that the approach justifies the status quo and complacency on the part of societys members, critics therefore have argued; even when such social change may benefit society functionalist fail to encourage people to take an active role in changing their social environment. Instead, functionalism sees active social change as a threat to society because the various parts of society will reimburse naturally for any problems that may occur. Unlike functionalist, the Marxist feminist approach does not focus on the positive aspects of society that contribute to its stability, but takes on a conflict perspective, which is inspired by Karl Marxs writings on class struggles. There approach draws main focus on the conflicted and changing nature of society. Whereas functionalists continue to avoid social change, however Marxist theorists challenge the status quo and encourage social change even when this means social revolution. Marxist feminist strongly believes gender inequality is down to capitalism, rich and powerful people who force social order on the poor and the weak. Engels (1902) noted that capitalism intensifies male domination, first capitalist create more wealth, which confers greater power on men as wage earners, expanding capitalist economy depends on defining people especially woman as customers and consumers and convincing them that personal fulfilment derives from owning and using products. (Macionis, Plummer , 2008:382), according to Engels this allowed men to work while society assigned woman the task of maintaining the home. The double exploitation of capitalism as Engels saw it paying low wages to male labour, and no wages to for female wok. (Macionis, Plummer, 2008:367). Marxist further suggests companies only employ woman when they really need them, making them more disposable, therefore they argue that women are a reserve army of labour. However critics see their theory as underestimating the particular shortcomings of women, and fail to explain gender inequality in socialist societies. More so, many argue that its overly negative view of society, ultimately attributes the efforts of positive aspects of society such as humanitarian, democracy, civil rights. There theory of reverse army of labour, critics argue it fails to explain why there are womens jobs and mens jobs. It is seems to overlook the fact that patriarchy can be influential by itself. The Marxist feminists seem to imply that once capitalism is abolished; gender inequality will disappear, which might not actually be the case. (Weineck, 2007). Many movements have been successful in their attempts of overcoming gender inequality however some have not been as victorious, yet hold strong arguments such as the Radical Feminist. They have sought to tackle gender inequality by extreme protesting of patriarchy, as they believe that men are responsible for the inequality of woman. Early Radical feminist Firestone (1971) argues that men control womans roles in reproduction and childrearing. Because women are biologically able to give birth to children, they become depended materially on men for protection and livelihood. (Giddens, 2009:617). She further suggests this biological inequality is socially organized in the nuclear family. Radical feminist have brought to light key arguments, such as free domestic labour, where men exploit woman by replying on the free labour woman provide in the home. Unlike Radical feminist, liberal feminist have conquered more in overcoming gender inequality. Liberal Feminist are moderate in their methods and aims, who seek to better womans rights through political and legal reform, they have gone on to achieve legislation such as the Equal Pay Act (1970) and the Sex Discrimination Act (1975). Though Radical feminist are seen to pursue a revolutionary agenda, however like liberal feminist, they stress practical political strategies. Nevertheless in contrast to liberal feminist frameworks, radical feminist is inclined to be suspicious of government intervention, perceiving the state itself as being intrinsically patriarchal, and also tends to focus on the politics of the private sphere, in particular sexuality, motherhood and bodies. (Beasley,1999:55). However Radical feminist have more in common with Marxist on terms of acknowledging that social life is embodied but as will shortly become evident, the inclination of the latter feminist approach is frequently to limit interest in embodiment to the laboring body of the paid. (Beasley, 1999:55). However they have criticized Marxist feminist on their view on capitalism, claiming that abolishing capitalism would not end patriarchy. Despite the fact that is can be heavily argued that radical feminist efforts have been less successful then liberal feminist, it is important to acknowledge their efforts of making society aware of the severity of domestic violence. There argument holds much relevance in todays society, as statistics show that woman as having a high rate of victimization, 1 in 4 women will be a victim of domestic violence in their lifetime. (Oxfam, 2011). The womans aid site stated that Between 10 and 69 per cent of women report abuse by their intimate partner in every country where reliable data exist. (Womans Aid, 2011). The efforts of radical feminist in overcoming this inequality has been successful in terms of providing shelters for abused woman, which did not exist in the 1970s. Furthermore there are now laws mandating the reporting of domestic violence of domestic due to the efforts made by the radical feminist. In conclusion, all the theories I have touched upon provide a variations of explanations on gender inequality, therefore it is clear to say there approaches are not cut from the same cloth. I feel the most convincing explanations are the aspects of socialisation of learning gender roles. I think this is important, as people sometimes without even realising it socialise boys and girls differently from an early age. The functionalist view on gender, I feel is outdated to some extent as social change is constantly taking place however it is important to look at all the argument made when exploring gender inequality. Though many feminist groups share conflicting views with one another such as radical feminist, liberal feminist and Marxist feminist, however it is important to appreciate their central aim of striving to help woman have the same equality as men.

Importance of Financial Institution Essay

Nature of financial institutions Financial institutions are the organizations which perform the essential functions of channeling funds from those with surplus funds (suppliers of funds) to those with shortages of funds (user of funds). Financial institutions are active in today’s global markets include commercial banks, insurance companies credit unions, finance companies, savings and loan associations, saving banks, pension funds, mutual funds, and similar organization. Their fundamental role in the financial system is to serve both ultimate lenders and borrowers but in a much more complete way than brokers and dealers do. Financial institutions issue securities of their own-often called secondary securities to ultimate lenders and at the same time primary securities from borrowers. The secondary securities issued by financial intermediaries include such familiar financial intermediaries include such familiar financial instruments as checking and savings accounts, life insurance policies, annuities and shares in mutual fund. For the most part, these securities share several common characteristics. They generally carry low risk of default. Financial institutions are accept primary securities from those who need credit and in doing so, take on financial assets that many savers, especially those with limited funds and limited knowledge of the market, would find unacceptable. Money lending in one form or the other has evolved along with the history of the mankind. Even in the ancient times there are references to the moneylenders. Shakespeare also referred to ‘Shylocks’ who made unreasonable demands in case the loans were not repaid in time along with interest. Indian history is also replete with the instances referring to indigenous money lenders, Sahukars and Zamindars involved in the business of money lending by mortgaging the landed property of the borrowers. Towards the beginning of the twentieth century, with the onset of modern industry in the country, the need for government regulated banking system was felt. The British government began to pay attention towards the need for an organised banking sector in the country and Reserve Bank of India was set up to regulate the formal banking sector in the country. But the growth of modern banking remained slow mainly due to lack of surplus capital in the Indian economic system at that point of time. Modern banking institutions came up only in big cities and industrial centres. The rural areas, representing vast majority of Indian society, remained dependent on the indigenous money lenders for their credit needs. Independence of the country heralded a new era in the growth of modern banking. Many new commercial banks came up in various parts of the country. As the modern banking network grew, the government began to realise that the banking sector was catering only to the needs of the well-to-do and the capitalists. The interests of the poorer sections as well as those of the common man were being ignored. The significance of the financial system to economic development is not quite clear-cut. Some researchers such as Hicks (1969) are of the opinion that the financial system plays a crucial role in the mobilization of capital for industrialization. On the other hand, there are those, who hold a contrary view. In the 1980s, several African governments embarked on structural adjustments programs in order to correct the disruptions in their economies. As Geo-Jaja and Mangum (2001) note, structural adjustment programs seldom delivered on their intended objectives. However, the relationship between financial development and economic growth during post-SAP period is examined using the Spearman rank correlation. The expected outcome of the structural adjustment program in Nigeria was marred by policy reversals of government. This is a possible reason for the poor performance of the financial sector of the economy. Therefore, financial development and economic growth have no consistent relationship in post-SAP Nigeria.

Greek and Roman Heroes

Brianne Keil HUM2210 October 15th, 2012 Interpretation Paper 2: The Warrior Hero We all envision certain types of qualities when considering what defines a hero: strength, agility, rock hard abs, and often, Brad Pitt. But throughout the Greek and Roman literature, we see different types of qualifications in the composition of their heroes. Obviously, both the Greeks and the Romans think that they define a true hero in their versions of Heroic Epics, but which one of these cultures actually proves that they have what makes the ultimate hero?With some further research into these societies and their literature, we see that their heroes really aren’t that different after all. In the Iliad, Homer targets the audience of Greek upper class men in order to spread some cultural propaganda to the nation. Homer captures audiences by using the hero of Achilles to show men what they should aim to be, and to show women what they should be looking for in a man. After the Dark Ages, Homer aim s to bring some positive light to the Greeks with his â€Å"Epic Heroes†, which leads to inspire more than just the Greek men of this time frame.Homer uses his words to encourage strength, creating what is known as the Greek Heroic Age, dating from 1200 to 750 BC. The Iliad becomes known as the warrior code of personal honor and glory, demonstrating the culture and the qualities Greek men should strive to achieve. Achilles, the epic’s hero, is an elegant gentleman who knows his destiny in life is to battle. Achilles makes it a strong point that the aim of every hero is to achieve honor, even if this honor is only reached in death. Achilles knows that he has two fates: to either live a long life with no fame attributed to him, or to die as a well-known warrior across his land.Achilles demonstrates to the male audience that honor can only sometimes be reached in battling to the death, an honor that is well worth sacrificing your life. In the Iliad, Achilles states, †Å"Man, supposing you and I, escaping this battle would be able to live on forever, ageless, immortal, so neither would I myself go on fighting in the foremost nor would I urge you into the fighting where men win glory. But now, seeing that the spirits of death stand close about us in their thousands, no man can turn aside nor escape them, let us go on and win glory or ourselves or yield it to others. † This statement proves Achilles deep desire within to reach glory for him, no matter what the cost. Even though Homer’s hero can only bestow honor alone, with his own actions, both Achilles and his enemy, Hector, strive to win the approval of the society as well. In a scene of the Iliad, Hector’s wife is urging, nearly begging, for him to sustain from battling. Hector replies with, â€Å"†¦ yet I would feel deep shame before the Trojans, and the Trojan women with trailing garments, if like a coward I were to shrink aside from the fighting. Hector’s resp onse demonstrates that not only does he have a duty to fulfill to the Trojans, but also to himself. By denying the fight with Achilles, Hector would be shameful to his society, but more importantly, to his own honor and glory. Homer displays a Greek hero as one with courage, honor, and personal glory that earns fame through the fights they conquer in their life. This description of a hero motivates many Greek men to step up to the plate and battle when the time comes, no matter what their risking along the way.A Greek Hero must be brave and fearless in the eyes of Homer, which leads to the perception of a hero to Greek citizens as a whole. The Roman’s, on the other hand, have a differing view of a hero, thanks to Virgil’s writing of the Aeneid. The Aeneid is an Epic History of Rome’s first ancestor, Aeneas. The original audience of this piece of literature is the broken and battered Trojans, who at the time (19 AD), were looking for some source of inspiration an d identity after being defeated by the Greek. The Aeneid demonstrates Pro-Rome propaganda, giving Romans something to believe in and aspire to be.It is said that Aeneas is the Hero that leads the Trojans after their defeat to Greece to a new land of prosperity. In the end, Aeneas slays Turnus due to his mission to provide the Roman’s with a new land to call â€Å"home. † Due to his strong will to complete his mission of reaching security, Aeneas is said to be the military Hero for Rome. Aeneas was â€Å"devoted to his mission†, and â€Å"chose the course heaven gave him†, leading to his title as an Epic Hero. Due to the cultural baggage the Trojans have after their humiliating defeat, the Aeneid is a much more emotional piece of literature, with â€Å"emotion in his heart†, when referring to Aeneas.Aeneas doesn’t just set an example for the Roman’s, he is inspirational to the entire population when things seemed to reach rock bottom. â€Å"Roman, remember by your strength to rule Earth’s peoples-†¦to pacify, to impose the rule of law, to spare the conquered, battle down the proud. †, Aeneas states in the Aeneid. By the end of the epic, the entire Roman audience feels that they themselves are the glorious conclusion of the story, not just Aeneas. He is idolized as the leader of a new found powerful legacy, in which includes each and every audience member. So now†¦the moment we’ve all been waiting for.Who takes the crown as the REAL epic hero? Well, it’s not that simple of a decision to make, even hundreds of years later. In some ways, the two heroes are very similar. But they also have contrasting qualities that make them unique to their culture. In Greece, the idea of personal honor and glory is highly emphasized, while the Roman Hero Aeneid is all about citizens coming together to reach power and prestige. The differing idealistic characteristics make sense from an outsider ’s view- the Greek had conquered the Trojans together, but only because of each individual warrior’s courage and bravery.In contrast, the Roman’s had just faced an embarrassing defeat, one which left the culture torn apart and most likely, depressed. Aeneid needed to create a positive morale among his people, which could only be restored by bringing everyone together to victory as one. The cultural baggage of each society lead to the way their heroes were presented. Even though the idealistic hero from a Greek society has more selfish attributes, Greek citizens would still appreciate Aeneid’s heroic acts, in my opinion.Whether Aeneid was fighting for his own glory, or for the glory of his people, he still slayed the enemy in order to reach his goal. The Greek audience would still hold Aeneid with high regards because in the end, he did battle for his destiny, and brought the Roman’s respect through his actions. Both cultures can appreciate the fact that both Achilles and Aeneid followed their destinies, battled for victory, and in the end, won fame because of their courage and dedication. While these motivations may have been pulled from different sources, both men were still able to bring glory upon themselves and the ones they fought for.Each of them held the true qualities of a warrior hero such as strength, endurance, and daring charisma, keeping them alive today, hundreds of years later. So, I hate to leave you hanging, but I guess the TRUE Epic Hero remains a mystery. After seeing what Achilles and Aeneid went through during battle, how can I choose which one is best? It’s so unfair! I think it’s safe to say that the Greeks will side with the self-determination of Achilles, while the Roman’s appreciate the inspiration Aeneid had to offer to them all.Either way, both of these men are considered warrior heroes to us all. Works Citied Dunkle, Roger. â€Å"The Classical Origins of Western Culture- ILIA D. † Brooklyn College Core Curriculum Series. Brookyln College, 1986. Web. 14 Oct. 2012. . SparkNotes Editors. â€Å"SparkNote on The Aeneid. † SparkNotes. com. SparkNotes LLC. 2002. Web. 2 Oct. 2012.

Homeless Students During Modern Society - 1500 Words

Homeless Students in Modern Society What do you think of when you hear the word homeless? Maybe you think of the people begging for work on the side of the streets. You might imagine drug addicts running from shelter to shelter. Actually, about half of the homeless people in the world are children and students, who do not abuse drugs. Sadly, the number of Homeless Students and Children in Caldwell county, and across the nation, is increasing, and the academic, social, and physical effects are devastating. From the from the article, â€Å"Global Homeless Statistics† on the website homelessworldcup.org, â€Å"The last time a global survey was attempted (by the United Nations in 2005), an estimated 100 million people were homeless worldwide. As many†¦show more content†¦In india, there are about 70 million homeless people and around 11 million street children. Here in America, Homelessness has declined 9 percent since 2007, but sadly, â€Å"unofficial estimates of total homelessness range from 1.6 million to 3.5 million (â€Å"Global Homeless Statistics†).† Homelessness is everywhere not just in countries like Africa, or only in the projects of lesser communities, homeless is happening right here in Caldwell county. It is harder to see the homeless than you think, not every homeless person, or child, will fall under the stereotypical definition of homelessness. There is more than one â€Å"official† definition of homelessness. According to the article, â€Å"Children† from the website NHCHC.org, â€Å"an individual who lacks housing (without regard to whether the individual is a member of a family), including an individual whose primary residence during the night is a supervised public or private facility (e.g., shelters) that provides temporary living accommodations, and an individual who is a resident in transitional housing†. [See Figure 1 for a chart.] There are many different types of homeless, but usually all types of homelessness is characterized by extreme poverty and lack of housing. Doubling up, or Couch surfing is a slang term for staying with a friend or extended family member and is a